Considerations on Representative Government

A treatise on the design of democratic institutions, published in 1861, two years after On Liberty. Mill judges governments by two tests: how far they make use of the good qualities citizens already have, and how far they improve those qualities. On both counts he argues that the ideally best form of government is representative government, since participation educates citizens and protects their interests. He then examines its dangers: low levels of political intelligence and class legislation by a self-interested majority. To guard against these, Mill supports Thomas Hare's scheme of proportional representation so that minorities are heard, and proposes extra votes for the better educated. He argues for extending the suffrage to women, favours open rather than secret voting as a public trust, and discusses second chambers, local government, federalism and the role of a skilled civil service. A chapter on the government of dependencies defends rule over peoples he judged unready for self-government, including British India, a view now widely criticised alongside his plural voting proposal.

It is still one of the best practical discussions of what democratic institutions are for, and its worries about majority rule, expertise and participation remain current.